The Gas Exchangers

1 Perspectives on Life and Respiration: How, When, and Wherefore.- 1.1 Life: Diversity, Complexity, and Uniformity Fabricated on Simplicity.- 1.2 The Earth: a Highly Dynamic Planet.- 1.3 Factors that Encouraged the Evolution of Life on Earth.- 1.4 Oxygen: a Vital Molecular Resource for Life.- 1.5 Anaerobic Metabolism and Adaptive Success in Animals.- 1.6 Evolved Mechanisms and Strategies of Procuring Molecular O­2.- 1.7 Explicating the Process of Evolution of Respiration: Limitations.- 1.8 Plans and Performance Measures of the Gas Exchangers.- 1.9 The Early Anoxic Earth and the Evolution of Life.- 1.10 Abundance of Molecular O2 in the Earth’s Biosphere.- 1.11 Shift from Anaerobiotic to Aerobiotic State in the Early Earth.- 1.12 Accretion of Molecular O2.- 1.13 CO2 Pulses in the Biosphere.- 1.14 The Overt and Covert Roles of O2 in Colonization and Extinctions of Biota.- 1.15 Oxygen: a Paradoxical Molecule.- 1.16 The Rise of the Level of Molecular O2: a Curse or a Blessing?.- 1.16.1 The Deleterious Reactive Radicals of Molecular O2.- 1.16.2 Senescence: the Effects Molecular O2.- 1.16.3 Biological Defenses Against O2 Toxicity.- 1.17 The Evolution of Complex Metabolic Processes.- 1.18 Oxygen and CO2 as Biochemical Factors in Respiration.- 1.19 Homeostasis: the Role of Respiration.- 2 Essence of the Designs of Gas Exchangers - the Imperative Concepts.- 2.1 Innovations and Maximization of Respiratory Efficiency.- 2.2 Safety Factors and Margins of Operation of Gas Exchangers.- 2.3 Engineering Principles in the Design of the Gas Exchangers.- 2.4 Scopes and Limitations in the Design and Refinement of the Gas Exchangers.- 2.5 Optimal Designs in Biology and Gas Exchangers in Particular.- 2.5.1 Symmorphosis: the Debate.- 2.5.2 The Operative Strategies for Optimization in the Gas Exchangers.- 2.5.3 Symmorphosis and Optimization: are they Logical Outcomes of Evolution?.- 2.6 Fractal Geometry: a Novel Approach for Discerning Biological Form.- 2.7 From Diffusion, Perfusion, and Ventilation to Respiratory Pigments.- 2.7.1 Diffusion.- 2.7.2 Convective Flows.- 2.8 Blood and the Respiratory Pigments.- 2.8.1 Hemoglobinless Fish.- 2.9 Energetic Cost and Efficiency of Respiration.- 2.9.1 The Requisites for Efficient Gas Exchange.- 2.9.2 Efficient vs. Inefficient - Primitive vs. Advanced Gas Exchangers: the Contention.- 2.10 Modeling: Utility in Study of Integrative Construction of the Gas Exchangers.- 2.10.1 Evaluation of the Functional Efficiency of the Gas Exchangers.- 2.10.2 Modeling the Gas Exchangers.- 3 Gas Exchange Media, Respiratory States, and Environments.- 3.1 Water and Air as Respiratory Media: General Considerations.- 3.2 Physical Charateristics of Water and Air.- 3.3 The Distribution of Water and Air on Earth.- 3.4 Water: a Respirable Medium and an Integral Molecule for Life.- 3.4.1 Oxygen and CO2 Content in Water: Effect on Respiration.- 3.4.2 Density and Viscosity of Water.- 3.4.3 Thermal Capacity and Conductivity of Water.- 3.4.4 Derelict Waters: Respiratory Stress from Hypercapnia and Hypoxia.- 3.5 Terrestrial Habitation and Utilization of Atmospheric O2.- 3.6 Hydrogen Sulfide Habitats. Tolerance and Utilization.- 3.7 The Porosphere and Fossorial Respiration.- 3.7.1 Gaseous Composition in Burrows.- 3.7.2 Burrowing Aquatic Annelids, Crustaceans, and Fish.- 3.8 Living at High Altitude: Coping with Hypoxia and Hypobaria.- 3.8.1 Tolerance of Arterial Hypocapnia in Birds.- 3.8.2 Flying over Mt. Everest: the Bar Headed Goose, Anser indicus.- 3.9 Gravity: Effects on Respiratory Form and Function.- 4 Water Breathing: the Inaugural Respiratory Process.- 4.1 The Design of the Gills.- 4.2 Adaptive Diversity and Heterogeneity of Gill Form.- 4.3 The Functional Innovations of the Gills for Aquatic Respiration.- 4.4 The Simple Gills.- 4.4.1 Morphological Characteristics.- 4.4.2 Ventilation and Functional Capacities.- 4.4.3 Gas Exchange Pathways and Mechanisms.- 4.5 The Complex Gills.- 4.5.1 Structure and Architectural Plans.- 4.6 The Water Lungs