Handbook of Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry

1 Origins and development.- 1.1. Introduction.- 1.2 The ICP-MS system.- 2 Instrumentation for ICP-MS.- 2.1 The inductively coupled plasma.- 2.1.1 Torch and plasma.- 2.1.2 RF coupling.- 2.1.3 Sample introduction.- 2.1.4 Sample history.- 2.1.5 Plasma populations.- 2.1.6 Distribution of ions in the plasma.- 2.1.7 Other plasmas.- 2.2 Ion extraction.- 2.2.1 Boundary layer and sheath.- 2.2.2 Plasma potential and secondary discharge.- 2.2.3 Supersonic jet.- 2.2.4 Gas dynamics.- 2.2.5 Ion kinetic energies.- 2.3 Ion focusing.- 2.3.1 Operation of ion lenses.- 2.3.2 Ion lenses in ICP-MS.- 2.3.3 Space charge effects.- 2.4 Quadrupole mass spectrometers.- 2.4.1 Quadrupole configuration.- 2.4.2 Ion trajectories and stability diagrams.- 2.4.3 Characteristics of mass spectra from quadrupoles.- 2.4.4 RF-only quadrupoles.- 2.4.5 Scanning and data acquisition.- 2.5 Other mass spectrometers.- 2.6 Ion detection.- 2.6.1 Channeltron electron multipliers.- 2.6.2 Signal measurement by pulse counting.- 2.6.3 Other detectors.- 2.7 Vacuum considerations.- 2.7.1 Properties and flow of gases.- 2.7.2 A vacuum system for ICP-MS.- 2.7.3 Pumps used in ICP-MS.- 3 Instrument options.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Nebulisers.- 3.2.1 Introduction.- 3.2.2 Concentric nebulisers.- 3.2.3 Cross-flow nebulisers.- 3.2.4 Babington type nebuliser.- 3.2.5 Frit type nebuliser.- 3.2.6 Ultrasonic nebuliser.- 3.3 Spray chambers.- 3.3.1 Principles.- 3.3.2 Operation.- 3.3.3 Thermally stabilised spray chambers for ICP-MS.- 3.4 Torches.- 3.4.1 Construction.- 3.4.2 Demountable torches.- 3.4.3 Alignment.- 3.4.4 Specialised torches.- 3.5 Interface.- 3.5.1 Introduction.- 3.5.2 Sampling cones.- 3.5.3 Skimmer cones.- 4 Sample introduction for liquids and gases.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.2 Electrothermal vaporisation.- 4.2.1 Principles.- 4.2.2 Instrumentation.- 4.2.3 Operating parameters.- 4.2.4 Applications and analytical performance of ETV-ICP-MS.- 4.3 Vapour generation and gas phase sample introduction.- 4.3.1 Introduction.- 4.3.2 Hydride generation.- 4.3.3 Osmium tetroxide vapour generation.- 4.3.4 Reactive gases.- 4.4 Liquid chromatography.- 4.4.1 Introduction.- 4.4.2 Principles.- 4.4.3 Instrumentation, reagents and operating parameters.- 4.4.4 Applications.- 4.5 Flow injection.- 4.5.1 Introduction.- 4.5.2 Apparatus.- 4.5.3 Sample introduction.- 4.5.4 Operating parameters.- 4.5.5 Applications.- 4.6 Direct sample insertion.- 4.6.1 Principles.- 4.6.2 Applications.- 5 Interferences.- 5.1 Introduction.- 5.2 Spectroscopic interferences.- 5.2.1 Isobaric overlap.- 5.2.2 Polyatomic ions.- 5.2.3 Refractory oxides.- 5.2.4 Doubly charged ions.- 5.2.5 Alleviation of spectroscopic interferences.- 5.3 Non-spectroscopic interferences.- 5.3.1 High dissolved solids.- 5.3.2 Suppression and enhancement effects.- 6 Calibration and data handling.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.2 General concepts.- 6.2.1 Mass scale calibration.- 6.2.2 Accuracy, precision and reproducibility.- 6.3 Instrumental modes of data collection.- 6.3.1 Peak hopping.- 6.3.2 Scanning.- 6.4 Linearity of response.- 6.5 Blanks.- 6.6 Factors affecting signal stability.- 6.7 Qualitative analysis.- 6.8 Semi-quantitative calibration.- 6.9 Quantitative analysis.- 6.9.1 External calibration techniques.- 6.9.2 Raw data correction procedures.- 6.9.3 Standard additions.- 6.9.4 Isotope dilution.- 7 Sample preparation for ICP-MS.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.2 General considerations.- 7.2.1 Laboratory equipment and practices.- 7.2.2 Choice of mineral acids.- 7.2.3 Limits of quantitative analysis.- 7.2.4 Precision and accuracy: assessing a digestion procedure.- 7.3 Digestion procedures.- 7.3.1 Open vessel digestions.- 7.3.2 Closed vessel digestions.- 7.3.3 Alkali fusions.- 7.3.4 Microwave digestion.- 7.4 Separation and pre-concentration methods.- 7.4.1 Rare earth elements.- 7.4.2 Precious metals.- 7.4.3 Petrogenic disciminators: Hf, Nb, Ta, Zr.- 7.5 Conclusions and overview.- 8 Elemental analysis of solutions and applications.- 8.1 Introduction.- 8.2 Multi-element determin...